“The History of Misinformation” is a 3-part opinion series inspired by The Age of Mistrust, a British Academy lecture held in February 2025. Each article reflects on a key speaker’s contribution, tracing how misinformation has shaped legal, political, and historical narratives from ancient Greece to modern times.

• Part 1 explores how gossip and subjective perception influenced justice in Ancient Greece through the trial of Phryne, as discussed by Professor Esther Eidinow.
• Part 2 delves into political propaganda and media manipulation, focusing on the Pigott forgeries targeting Irish leader Charles Stewart Parnell, presented by Professor Alvin Jackson.
• Part 3 highlights the distortion of historical narratives, particularly British versus Indian accounts of the 1857 Indian Rebellion, as examined by Professor Yasmin Khan.

Together, the series underscores how misinformation—driven by bias, media influence, and emotional allegiance—continues to shape public perception and historical truth. It calls for critical media literacy, balanced sourcing, and self-awareness in our consumption of information.

The 3-part series was commissioned by the City Law School journal, Lawbore. 

Part 1

Information much like a humble kitchen knife is nothing but a tool, a double-edged sword. One that can be used for good and the very same can be used for evil. The difference is who wields it. With every advancement in technology comes inadvertent risks that threaten to erode the espoused benefits that come with it. As has become increasingly apparent, access to information with the advancement in internet technology does not necessarily mean an increase in global knowledge and overall intelligence. Paradoxically evidence suggests that more information can lead to the opposite; a dumbing down of society. 

While this may not be a bombshell revelation, history may reveal some clues as to what may be driving this incongruous development in human society. Spoiler alert, the problem is not technology. To put this topic into perspective the British Academy held a series of lectures under the title, The Age of Mistrust. I had the privilege of attending the latest in this series which was aptly dubbed ‘’The History of Misinformation.’’

The event brought together an expert panel of Professors to share their perspectives on what history tells us about how and why misinformation spreads. The main panelists namely, Professor Esther Eidinow FBA; Professor Alvin Jackson FBA; and Professor Yasmin Khan each brought unique perspectives from their ongoing research to the conversation chaired by Ritula Shah, an experienced panel chair and broadcast journalist formerly of BBC’s World Tonight and currently of Classic FM. 

The first of the speakers was Professor Esther Eidinow FBA of The University of Bristol who is a leading voice in Ancient Greek history. Much of her work focuses on Ancient Greek religion and culture. In this talk, her insights were brought to bear by the retelling and re-framing of the trial of Phryne (pronounced Frainy) an Ancient Greek courtesan who became one of the wealthiest women in Ancient Greece. It is believed that she was a muse for the Greek artists, Apelles and Praxiteles. She is the subject of ‘’Phryne Before the Areopagus by French artist Jean-Léon Gérôme which is today in the collection of Kunsthalle Hamburg in Germany. And has been inspired by countless artists over the centuries such as Cezanne, Gillam, JMW Turner, José Frappa, among many others. Today she remains an iconic figure that would come to define the hellenic ideals of beauty. 

Herstory as retold by Professor Eidinow was of a trial against Phryne on a charge of impiety brought before an Athenian court by a rejected lover Euthias and defended by Hypereides; a speech writer, orator and rumoured lover of Phryne. According to the Professor, Phryne was a sex worker and freelance priestess with political ties to the upper echelon of Greek society. Her trade which often involved spellbound rituals was the subject of much gossip and intrigue in the Athenian courts. Unlike in modern court proceedings where evidence and precedent are paramount, in Ancient Greece the circulation of gossip and suspicion formed the basis for a legal charge against Phryne. To quote the Professor, ‘’Misinformation thrives when gossip fits with what we think we know or perceive about the subject of the gossip’’. Her only defence rested on Hypereides pulling at the emotional heartstrings of the court. He did so by dramatically revealing her nakedness to the court. The story goes that the sight of her body in the eyes of the all-male jury was enough evidence of her innocence and she was immediately acquitted of all charges. For how could someone with the body of a goddess whose likeness stood in for Aphrodite be guilty of such a capital crime? 

The story itself appears centuries after it was supposed to have taken place which in itself exemplifies the power of gossip and storytelling. The trial and outcome of the case sounds like a familiar tale of how misinformation and public perception can outweigh facts in influencing justice. Although modern day trials have evolved from gossip and emotionally subjective rulings to more evidence and precedent based judgements, this does sound eerily similar to the theatrical performance of celebrity scandals, and the effects that gossip, media narratives and social media bias have on legal proceedings. The next article in the series takes a different angle from the perspective of the role of the media.

In Part 2, we move from the ancient world of Greek gossip to the 19th-century press, where misinformation became a powerful political weapon. Professor Alvin Jackson unpacks the Pigott forgeries—an infamous case of media-driven falsehood with far-reaching consequences for Irish politics. The article explores how confirmation bias and political agendas shaped public opinion then, and how those same dynamics continue to echo in today’s media landscape.

Read Part 2 HERE